Komodo Reptile Scales

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DABVP, Ryan S. De Voe DVM MSpVM DACZM. "Reptilian cardiovascular anatomy and physiology: evaluation and monitoring (Proceedings)". dvm360.com. Archived from the original on 2018-11-06 . Retrieved 2017-04-22. Huxley, T.H. (1863). "The structure and classification of the Mammalia". Medical Times and Gazette. Hunterian lectures. See also: Skull roof Reptiles, from Nouveau Larousse Illustré, 1897–1904, notice the inclusion of amphibians (below the crocodiles)

After the extinction of most archosaur and marine reptile lines by the end of the Cretaceous, reptile diversification continued throughout the Cenozoic. Squamates took a massive hit during the K–Pg event, only recovering ten million years after it, [62] but they underwent a great radiation event once they recovered, and today squamates make up the majority of living reptiles (> 95%). [63] [64] Approximately 10,000 extant species of traditional reptiles are known, with birds adding about 10,000 more, almost twice the number of mammals, represented by about 5,700living species (excluding domesticated species). [65] Huey, R.B. & Bennett, A.F. (1987):Phylogenetic studies of coadaptation: Preferred temperatures versus optimal performance temperatures of lizards. Evolution No. 4, vol 5: pp. 1098–1115 PDF Main article: Reptiles in culture Painting of fighting " Laelaps" (now Dryptosaurus) by Charles R. Knight (1897) Scales do not play an important role in distinguishing between the families but are important at generic and specific level. There is an elaborate scheme of nomenclature of scales. Scales patterns, by way of scale surface or texture, pattern and colouration and the division of the anal plate, in combination with other morphological characteristics, are the principal means of classifying snakes down to species level. [26] Antediluvian monster", a Mosasaurus discovered in a Maastricht limestone quarry, 1770 (contemporary engraving)The close of the Permian saw the greatest mass extinction known (see the Permian–Triassic extinction event), an event prolonged by the combination of two or more distinct extinction pulses. [52] Most of the earlier parareptile and synapsid megafauna disappeared, being replaced by the true reptiles, particularly archosauromorphs. These were characterized by elongated hind legs and an erect pose, the early forms looking somewhat like long-legged crocodiles. The archosaurs became the dominant group during the Triassic period, though it took 30 million years before their diversity was as great as the animals that lived in the Permian. [52] Archosaurs developed into the well-known dinosaurs and pterosaurs, as well as the ancestors of crocodiles. Since reptiles, first rauisuchians and then dinosaurs, dominated the Mesozoic era, the interval is popularly known as the "Age of Reptiles". The dinosaurs also developed smaller forms, including the feather-bearing smaller theropods. In the Cretaceous period, these gave rise to the first true birds. [53] a b c d Romer, A.S; Parsons, T.S. (1985) [1977]. The Vertebrate Body (5thed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders. Capshaw, Grace; Willis, Katie L.; Han, Dawei; Bierman, Hilary S. (2020). "Reptile sound production and perception". In Rosenfeld, Cheryl S.; Hoffmann, Frauke (eds.). Neuroendocrine Regulation of Animal Vocalization. Academic Press. pp.101–118. ISBN 978-0128151600. Scale arrangements are important, not only for taxonomic utility, but also for forensic reasons and conservation of snake species. [19]

Hartline, PH (1971). "Physiological basis for detection of sound and vibration in snakes". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 54 (2): 349–71. doi: 10.1242/jeb.54.2.349. PMID 5553415. Some squamate species (e.g., pythons and monitor lizards) have three-chambered hearts that become functionally four-chambered hearts during contraction. This is made possible by a muscular ridge that subdivides the ventricle during ventricular diastole and completely divides it during ventricular systole. Because of this ridge, some of these squamates are capable of producing ventricular pressure differentials that are equivalent to those seen in mammalian and avian hearts. [70] By the early 21st century, vertebrate paleontologists were beginning to adopt phylogenetic taxonomy, in which all groups are defined in such a way as to be monophyletic; that is, groups which include all descendants of a particular ancestor. The reptiles as historically defined are paraphyletic, since they exclude both birds and mammals. These respectively evolved from dinosaurs and from early therapsids, both of which were traditionally called "reptiles". [19] Birds are more closely related to crocodilians than the latter are to the rest of extant reptiles. Colin Tudge wrote: a b Garnett, S. T. (2009). "Metabolism and survival of fasting Estuarine crocodiles". Journal of Zoology. 4 (208): 493–502. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1986.tb01518.x.

Mannena, Hideyuki; Li, Steven S.-L. (1999). "Molecular evidence for a clade of turtles". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 13 (1): 144–148. doi: 10.1006/mpev.1999.0640. PMID 10508547.

The reptile has rough scales or bony plates covering the skin which are shed on a regular basis. These cold-blooded creatures cannot maintain a consistent internal body temperature and rely completely on the external environment to warm up or cool down.Many turtles, tortoises, and lizards have proportionally very large bladders. Charles Darwin noted that the Galapagos tortoise had a bladder which could store up to 20% of its body weight. [100] Such adaptations are the result of environments such as remote islands and deserts where water is very scarce. [101] :143 Other desert-dwelling reptiles have large bladders that can store a long-term reservoir of water for up to several months and aid in osmoregulation. [102] a b c d e f g Greene, Harry W. (2004) Snakes – The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. University of California Press, pp. 22–23 ISBN 0520224876. Spotila J.R. & Standora, E.A. (1985) Environmental constraints on the thermal energetics of sea turtles. Copeia 3: 694–702 Osborn, H.F. (1903). "The reptilian subclasses Diapsida and Synapsida and [the] early history of Diaptosauria". Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. 1: 451–507.

Crocodiles are protected in many parts of the world, and are farmed commercially. Their hides are tanned and used to make leather goods such as shoes and handbags; crocodile meat is also considered a delicacy. [166] The most commonly farmed species are the saltwater and Nile crocodiles. Farming has resulted in an increase in the saltwater crocodile population in Australia, as eggs are usually harvested from the wild, so landowners have an incentive to conserve their habitat. Crocodile leather is made into wallets, briefcases, purses, handbags, belts, hats, and shoes. Crocodile oil has been used for various purposes. [167] Smith, Malcolm A. (1943) The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma including the whole of the Indo-Chinese Sub-region, Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol I – Loricata and Testudines, Vol II-Sauria, Vol III-Serpentes. Taylor and Francis, London. Parthenogenetic species are suspected to occur among chameleons, agamids, xantusiids, and typhlopids. a b Thorpe, Roger S.; Thorpe, R. S.;Wüster, Wolfgang & Malhotra, Anita (1997). Venomous snakes: ecology, evolution, and snakebite. Vol. 70 of Symposia of the Zoological Society of London. Oxford University Press, London. ISBN 0-19-854986-5.a b c Lee, M.S.Y. (2013). "Turtle origins: Insights from phylogenetic retrofitting and molecular scaffolds". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 26 (12): 2729–2738. doi: 10.1111/jeb.12268. PMID 24256520. Baker, Barry W (2006). "Forensic implications of dorsal row counts on Puff-faced Water-snakes (Colubridae: Homalopsinae: Homalopsis buccata)" (PDF). Herpetological Review. 37 (2): 171–173. Euryapsida– one high fenestra (above the postorbital and squamosal)– protorosaurs (small, early lizard-like reptiles) and the marine sauropterygians and ichthyosaurs, the latter called Parapsida in Osborn's work. Identification of cephalic scales is most conveniently begun with reference to the nostril, which is easily identified on a snake. There are two scales enclosing the nostril which are called the nasals. In colubrids, the nostril lies between the nasals, while in vipers it lies in the centre of a single nasal scale. [22] The outer nasal (near the snout) is called the prenasal while the inner nasal (near the eye) is called the postnasal. Along the top of the snout connecting the nasals on both sides of the head are scales called internasals. Between the two prenasals is a scale at the tip of the snout called the rostral scale. [22] Resources Inventory Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks Resources Inventory Branch for the Terrestrial Ecosystems Task Force Resources Inventory Committee . (1998). Inventory Methods for Snakes Standards for Components of British Columbia's Biodiversity No. 38.